Cell is comprised by many macromolecules that have structures and functions vary. Large
macromolecules within cells formed as a composition of repeated units
called monomers struktutr basis, the monomers are connected to each
other by covalent bonds. Monomers
are linked by a chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently
bonded to each other from one molecule to another molecule by removing
one molecule of water (a condensation reaction or because the molecule
is lost is water, the reaction can be called a dehydration reaction). Monomer then strung together to form a polymer through a process known as condensation synthesis. While a shaped macromolecules called polymers.When two monomers join it will free up water molecules (as previously described). One monomer loss hydroxy (OH) and the monomer others will lose a group of hydrogen (H).
Here are some examples of macromolecules that are important in living things.1. Polysaccharides
Is a product of polymerization of monosaccharides, forming starch, cellulose, glycogen, or the polysaccharide complex2. Protein and Polypeptide
An arrangement of 20 kinds of amino acids linked by peptide bonds3. Nucleic Acids
It is a chain of four different nukleotid. In the DNA molecule of nucleic acid is the primary source of genetic informationMacromolecule macromolecule is the most numerous and complex activity. The following will explain more about the structure and function of each of these macromolecules.A. ProteinProtein is an arrangement of 20 kinds of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Based on the arrangement of molecules, proteins are grouped into:1. Structural Proteins act as an advocate and supportera. Structural intracellular inside the cell plays a role in the formation of sitoskeletExample: tubulin, actin and myosin.b. extracellular structural contained in multicellular organismsExample: collagen and keratin2. Dynamic Protein is a protein involved in cell metabolism, easily broken down and re-assembled. Example: enzymes, hormones and pigments.Protein is a very important component of protoplasm addition to the water. The role of proteins in cells, among others:1. As a catalyst for many chemical reactions contained in the cell, namely as components in the enzyme.2. Giving cell structural strength, namely tubulin, actin and myosin are involved in the formation of sitoskelet.3. Monitoring the permeability of the membrane, the proteins that make up the cell membrane4. Cause movement that occurs in the cell5. Monitor the activities of the cell6. Set the required levels of metabolites
Protein found in the membrane and cytoplasm (organelles) cells:1. Plasma membrane
The protein found in the plasma membrane of 60% of the entire weight of the plasma membrane. Protein found in the membrane mainly shaped stromatin, which is a type of protein that is not soluble in water. Because the cell membrane is semipermable then need a way to communicate with other cells and exchange nutrients with the extracellular space. These roles are mainly filled by proteins. Proteins are a class apart molecules not associated with lipid and consists of amino acids. Proteins are much larger than lipids and move more slowly, but there are some who engaged in targeted while others seem to float. The amount and type of protein in the membrane varies greatly in each of the cell membrane depends on the specific function to which it aspires. In general, membrane proteins are classified into two, namely the integral proteins and peripheral proteins.a. Integral ProteinsIntegrated membrane proteins (integral membrane proteins) are proteins that penetrate the membrane on both surfaces or membranes stretched between the two surfaces. Protein integral transmembrane protein with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane. Part of proteins exposed to the interior and exterior of the cell hydrophillic. Integral proteins can function as pores that allow ions selectively or nutrients into the cell. They also send signals into and out of cells. These proteins include several types, namely:1) transmembrane proteinAre proteins that penetrate the membrane on both sides, both once through the membrane (singlepass protein) or a few times through the membrane (multipass protein). Each copy of the membrane is α-helical structure with parts that are embedded in the lipid bilayer, so it makes sense that part of the primary structure of proteins through the membrane composed of hydrophobic amino acids. The hydrophobic part of the protein interacts with the tail of the phospholipids, while the hidrofiliknya appear on both the surface membrane (the outer and the cytoplasmic side). Part proteins protruding on both sides of the surface hydrophilic surely, so that they can interact with the aquatic environment.2) Protein Integral Part Primarily located in the surface membrane cell's interior sideThis protein is associated with the membrane bilayer through the mediation of a covalent bond with the fatty acid chains or chain prenyl lipids such specialized groups. This protein is synthesized as a soluble protein in the cytosol and are modified to bind to lipid groups covalently post-translational, ie in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi bodies.3) Integral proteins are part Primarily Located in extracellular side of the membrane surfaceThis protein binds to phosphatidyl choline inositol-mediated oligosaccharide covalently bonded.
b. Peripheral ProteinProtein is a protein located in the peripheral areas of both sides of the membrane (the cytoplasmic side and outer side) and interact with other membrane proteins in non-covalent, does not interact with the phospholipid double layer. Unlike span integral membrane proteins, peripheral proteins are on one side of the membrane and peripheral proteins are attached to proteins. Integral protein serves as an anchor point for the cytoskeleton or extracellular fibers.The function of integral and peripheral proteins in the plasma membrane varies greatly, including:a) As the enzyme attached to the membraneExamples of beta-glucosidase enzyme to free auxin in the cells at germination and integral membrane proteins of mitochondria or chloroplasts that serve to electron transport enzymes (oxidation and reduction events protin and electron carrier molecules to form ATP while simultaneously).b) As an active transport mediatorExamples of the cell wall of the small intestine to absorb nutrients while in the blood vessels.c) As a structural element of the plasma membraned) As the proton pump in the mitochondrial membranee) As a receptor (receiver) hormones and growth factors cellsExamples of estrogen attaches to estrogen receptors and give the command to carry out the synthesis of cell proteins as desired (eg cell marker secondary growth of animals) to sexual maturity.f) As the cell identityIdentity is usually identified as a protein facing out cells containing oligosaccharides. Proteins are called glycoproteins.g) As a way to distinguish between the self (self) and foreign cells (non-self)An example of the reaction of foreign cell transplantation, the cells themselves recognize foreign cells because of differences in the glycoprotein.2. CytoplasmCytosol is part of the cytoplasm in the form of liquid on the sidelines of organelles webbed. Cytosol is the dominant constituent cells are as much as 50%. In many soluble cytosolic enzyme involved in the metabolism of intermediates. Most of the enzymes present in the cytosol are synthesized by ribosomes. Some cytosolic proteins form fine strands called filaments. Filament is woven to form a framework called sitoskelet. Sitoskelet serves members in cell shape, organize and lead the movement sitioplasma streak and related and form a net work set enzymatic reactions.In the cell nucleus, the proteins contained in DNA is the main compounds that make up proteins. Proteins are synthesized on ribosomes through the process of replication and translation. Ribosomes are found in RE has a composition of 50% protein. In the ongoing process of the formation of the Golgi complex glycoprotein that is a combination of glucose and protein. Proteins are composed of amino acids brought to the ribosome RE, then forwarded to the Golgi complex which is where glycoprotein formation.B. LipidLipids are oily or greasy organic compounds that are insoluble in water, which can be extracted from cells and tissues by non-polar solvents, such as chloroform or ester. Polar lipids are a major component of cell membranes, the "place" of the metabolic reactions. Many of the properties of the cell membrane which is a reflection of the content of polar lipids. The cell membrane serves to protect the cells from the environment and also allows for compartment-compartment within the cell for metabolic activity, as well as the introduction or in the presence of different receptors that can recognize other cells, hormone binding tetentu, and feel a variety of other cues from the external environment . (Lehninger, 1982)Membrane lipids are phospholipids most. Phospholipids serve primarily as structural elements of the membrane and is never stored in large quantities. This lipid phosphorus in the form of phosphoric acid groups. The main phospholipids found in the membranes is fosfogliserida, containing two molecules of fatty acid ester bond with the hydroxyl group on the first and second glycerol.
Spingolipid is also a component of the membrane that has a polar head and two nonpolar tails, but these compounds do not contain glycerol. Spingolipid made up of one molecule of long-chain amino alcohol spingosin, or one of its compounds, and a polar alcohol on the head. There are 3 subclass spingolipid:1. SpingomielinThis compound contains fosfokolin or fosfoetanolamin as polar groups in the head. Spingolipid membranes found in virtually all animal cells, the myelin sheath that surrounds certain nerve cells.2. SerebrosidaSerebrosida contains no phosphates and has no electric charge because the polar head groups are neutral. Serebrosida glikospingolipid often referred to as the cluster at the head of this molecule is typically comprised of one or more sugar units. This group is glikolipida, a common name for the lipid having sugar groups. Some of the specific name of the galaktoserebrosida that is typically found in the membranes of brain cells and glukoserebrosida containing D-glucose present in the cell membrane of nerve tissue instead.C. CarbohydrateCarbohydrates are one of the compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates serve as a source of energy in animals and plants. In most plants, carbohydrates as well as an important constituent cell wall that acts as an element underpinning. Animal tissue has fewer carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are important such as glucose, galactose, glycogen, amino sugars and polymer.Carbohydrates are divided into several categories including:1. Monosaccharides.This is the simplest sugar with the empirical formula Cn (H2O) n. Classification of monosaccharides based on the number of carbon atoms such as triose, heksose. Pentose, ribose, and deoxyribose found in the nucleic acid molecules. Pentose and ribulose very important in photosynthesis. Medium glikose and heksose is the main source of energy in cells. Other important Heksose galaktose, located on the disaccharide lactose, and fructose (levulose) forming part of the sucrose.2. Disaccharide.Disaccharide is a sugar that is formed by the condensation of two monomers monosaccharide loses one molecule of water. Empiriknya Formula C12H22O11. This group is most important is sucrose and maltose in plants and lactose in animals.3. Polysaccharides.Polysaccharides are condensation products of many monosaccharide molecules by losing water molecules. Empiriknya formula (C6H10O5) n. When hydrolyzed produce simple sugar molecules. polysaccharides are the most important in living organisms are starch and glycogen reserves of food substances in plant and animal cells and cellulose which is an important structural element in plant cells. Starch is a combination of two monosaccharides is a long molecule composed of amylose and amylopectin branching an that has branches. While glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules. It is present in many tissues and organs, the largest found in the liver cells and muscle fibers.4. Complex polysaccharides and glycoproteins.Besides polysaccharide composed of hexose monomer, there is also a longer molecules and complexes containing amino nitrogen that can undergo acetylation or substitution with sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid. All of this is very important in polymer molecular organisms primarily as intercellular substance. This polysaccharide is free or bound to proteins as an example:a. Neutral polysaccharides.Asetilglikosamin example contains only the substance chitin in insects and crustaceae backers.b. Acidic mucopolysaccharide.Containing sulfuric acid or other molecule. Molkekul is highly basophilic. Those included in this group are adalam heparin, kondriotin sulfate, umbilical cord, hyaluronic acid.c. Glycoprotein.A complex composed of protein and carbohydrate prosthetic groups. Some monosaccharides such as galactose, mannose, as well as N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and sialic acid can be found in this molecule. Glycoproteins can be divided into two types namely intracellular glycoproteins and secretory glycoproteins.Carbohydrates on the plasma membrane bound proteins or lipids in the form glikolipida and glycoproteins. Glikolipida is a collection of various types of units such as monosaccharides different simple sugars D-glucose, D-galactose, D-mannose, L-fructose, L-arabinose, D-xylosa, and so on. Carbohydrates play an important role in various cell activities, including the immune system. Carbohydrates on the plasma membrane is the result of cell secretion and remained associated with the membrane forming glycocalyx. Usually the doctor can tell any normal or abnormal cells through glycolipid and glikoproteinnya.For the eukaryotic plasma membrane have carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins and fats. Carbohydrate component of the plasma memran amount to approximately 2-10% of the total weight of the plasma membrane, depending on the species and cell type. For example, the plasma membrane of red blood cells have a 52% protein, 40% fat and 8% carbohydrate. Of 8%, 7% fat bind to form glycolipids and 93% bind to proteins to form glycoproteins. Plasma membrane is an asymmetric membrane, lipid molecules in the outer membrane lipid in contrast to the inner membrane. Similarly, the second polypeptide is also different lipid bilayer sheets. Pacification of carbohydrates is also asymmetrical. Molecular chains of most glycolipids, glycoproteins and and PROTEO glikan the plasma membrane has never been on the cytosolic surface.D. Nucleic AcidsFriedrich Miescher (1844-1895) was the one who started the knowledge of chemistry and the cell nucleus. In 1868, Hoppe-Syler laboratory in Tubingen, he chose pus cells are found in the former wound, and then the cells are dissolved in dilute acid and in this way diperolehinti cells still attached to a protein. By adding a protein enzyme breaker he can get just the cell nucleus and the nucleus of the cell extraction to obtain a substance that dissolves in alkali but insoluble in acid. then this substance called "nuclein" now known as the nucleoprotein. Furthermore demonstrated that the nucleic acid is one of the compounds forming cells and normal tissues.Some of the important function of nucleic acids is to store, menstransmisi, and translating genetic information; metabolism between (intermediary metabolism) and energy information reactions; coenzyme energy carrier; coenzyme transfer of acetic acid, sugars, amino compounds and other biomolecules; coenzyme oxidation reduction reactions .Nucleic acids are one of the important macromolecules in living organisms. There are two kinds of nucleic acids in living things, ie in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid). Both are molecular carrier of genetic information. Types of polymer molecules of DNA and RNA structures that have the length of the repeated nucleotide monomers bond. The sequence of nucleotides in the nucleic acid to form a code that stores and forwards the information required cells in cell growth and reproduction. The nucleotides also perform energy transfer or reactant components from one system to another in the cell.Each nucleotide consists of nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, one or more phosphate, all the components are linked by covalent bonds. These will be discussed each constituent nucleotides.1. Nitrogen Basesconsists of two types, namely purine and pyrimidine nitrogen bases that ring nitrogen and carbon.a. Nitrogen pyrimidine basesConsisting of a single ring of carbon and nitrogen. Consisting of uracil (U), thymine (T), and cytosine (C)b. Nitrogen Bases PurinesConsists of two rings of carbon and nitrogen. Consisting of adenine (A) and Guanine (G).All the genetic information of living things lies in the linear arrangement of the four base. Therefore, the fourth base encodes all of the primary structure of proteins (which consists of 20 amino acids).
2. Pentose sugar
That sugar consists of five carbon atoms. Nuklrotida acids constituting pentose is ribose and deoxyribose. Pentose deoxyribose are that make up DNA, while ribose is a pentose that make up RNA. The difference between the two is the oxygen on carbon number 2 'does not exist in deoxyribose.
3. PhospatCluster molecule that binds phosphate to pentose sugar nitrogen base with ester bonds.Nucleotide is a nucleoside sugar group at the 5'-position of its binding phosphoric acid (phosphate groups) with the ester bond. Nucleoside consists of pentose (deoxyribose or ribose) binding of a base (purine or pyrimidine derivatives) via glycoside bonds. Here is a comparison of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides and nucleosides on:Nucleoside bases Nukleotid1. Purine
Adenine Adenosine Adenosine monoposfat (AMP) = acid adonilat
Monoposfat guanine guanosine guanosine (GMP) = acid guanilat
Hypoxanthine monoposfat inosine inosine (IMP) = acid inosinat2. Pyrimidine
Monoposfat uracil uridine uridine (UMP) = acid uridilat
Monoposfat cytidine cytidine cytosine (CMP) = acid sitidilat
Monoposfat thymidine thymidine thymine (TMP) = acid thymidylateNucleosides exist in free form has an important function for health, for example, puromisin that function as antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis (produced by streptomyces). Arabinosil cytosine and adenine arabinosil as anti-viral and anti-fungal. Nucleotides are as free molecules or bind with other nucleotides to form nucleic acids. An example can be seen in the following table:DNA RNA Nitrogen BasesAdenine (A)Guanine (G)Thymine (T)Cytosine (C)Uracil (U) Adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)Guanosine 5'-monophosphate (GMP)-------------------Sitidin 5'-monophosphate (CMP)Uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP) deoxy adenosine 5'-monophosphate (DAMP)Deoxy guanosine 5'-monophosphate (DGMP)Deoxy thymidine 5'-monophosphate (dTMP)Sitidin deoxy 5'-monophosphate (dCMP)------------------Some nucleotides have important functions in the cell such as adenosine 5 'monophosphate (AMP), adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), which plays an important role in the transfer of a phosphate group to receive and deliver energy.Another form of cyclic nucleotides such as adenosine 3'-5'-cyclic monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP-) acts as a secondary messenger preformance adrenal hormones controlling metabolism. Another free nucleotides cyclic guanosine monophosphate is (cGMP = cyclic GMP) which allegedly serves as an enzyme inhibitor that is stimulated by cAMP. Also note that some trifosfonukleotida besides ATP plays a role in various reactionsin the cell. For example, CTP (Sitidin 5'-triphosphate) is involved in the biosynthesis of phospholipids, UTP role in the biosynthesis of various carbohydrate compounds. CTP and UTP are also used in the biosynthesis of RNA and DNA1) The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)This acid is a polymer consisting of deoxyribonucleotides molecules bound to one another to form a long polynucleotide chains. Long DNA molecules are formed by bonding between atoms C number 3 to number 5 on the C atom molecule-mediated deoxyribose phosphate groups. DNA containing a chemically karakteri / properties as follows:
a. Having a deoxyribose sugar group.
b. Nitrogenous bases guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) and adenine (A).
c. It has a chain of anti-parallel double helix
d. The content of nitrogen bases between the two chains together many specific and paired with one another. Guanine always pairs with cytosine (G-C), and adenine paired with thymine (A - T), so that the amount of guanine always equals the amount of cytosine. Likewise adenine and thymine.2) The structure of ribonucleic acid (RNA)Ribonucleic acid is a polymer composed of molecules ribonucleotides. Such DNA ribonucleic acid is formed by the bonding between atoms C No. 3 with the number 5 on the C atom of ribose molecule by means of a phosphate group. The formula is the same as the picture but the sugar is ribose 10.2 (C atom holding the number 2 OH) RNA have different specific properties of the chemical properties of DNA, ie in terms of:
a. Pentosanya sugar is ribose
b. RNA has ribonucleotide guanine (G), cytosine (C), adenine (A) and Uracil (U) instead of Thymine in DNA.
c. Fosfodiesternya strand is a single strand that can fold into a hairpin like DNA strands ganda.Beda the double helix shape of the molecule.
d. Percentage bass does not have the same content, not necessarily the same pair adenine with uracil and cytosine with guanine not be the same.There are three types of RNA that is tRNA (transfer RNA), mRNA (messenger RNA) and rRNA (ribosomal RNA). The three kinds of RNA have different functions, but all three together have an important role in protein synthesis. Here merupakn DNA to RNA structure comparison:In the cell, nucleic acids exist in three organelles, namely mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the nucleus of the cell. Here's the explanation:1. The cell nucleus (nucleus)This cell nucleus has three components, namely nukleoplasma, chromosomes, and nucleolus. In the nucleus, DNA is in the chromosomes. In the chromosomes are threads of DNA and protein synthesis plays a role in heredity factor. In addition to the DNA in the nucleus also contained RNA.2. MitochondriaNucleic acid contained in the mitochondria is deoksiribinukleat (DNA). Mitochondrial DNA contained in an organelle matrix is expressed as the mitochondrial genome. Mitochondrial DNA acts as a molecular marker for population genetic studies, tracking and tracing the origin of some degenerate diseases, aging, and cancer.3. ChloroplastsAccording to De Roberties, et al (1975:240) that between 3-5% of the dry weight of the chloroplast is RNA. DNA in the chloroplast genetic system known as non kromosal or cytoplasmic heredity. Additionally chloroplasts have DNA and RNA specific with the capacity in protein synthesis and the division process.Cell is comprised by many macromolecules that have structures and functions vary. Large macromolecules within cells formed as a composition of repeated units called monomers struktutr basis, the monomers are connected to each other by covalent bonds. Monomers are linked by a chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bonded to each other from one molecule to another molecule by removing one molecule of water (a condensation reaction or because the molecule is lost is water, the reaction can be called a dehydration reaction). Monomer then strung together to form a polymer through a process known as condensation synthesis. While a shaped macromolecules called polymers.When two monomers join it will free up water molecules (as previously described). One monomer loss hydroxy (OH) and the monomer others will lose a group of hydrogen (H).
Here are some examples of macromolecules that are important in living things.1. Polysaccharides
Is a product of polymerization of monosaccharides, forming starch, cellulose, glycogen, or the polysaccharide complex2. Protein and Polypeptide
An arrangement of 20 kinds of amino acids linked by peptide bonds3. Nucleic Acids
It is a chain of four different nukleotid. In the DNA molecule of nucleic acid is the primary source of genetic informationMacromolecule macromolecule is the most numerous and complex activity. The following will explain more about the structure and function of each of these macromolecules.A. ProteinProtein is an arrangement of 20 kinds of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Based on the arrangement of molecules, proteins are grouped into:1. Structural Proteins act as an advocate and supportera. Structural intracellular inside the cell plays a role in the formation of sitoskeletExample: tubulin, actin and myosin.b. extracellular structural contained in multicellular organismsExample: collagen and keratin2. Dynamic Protein is a protein involved in cell metabolism, easily broken down and re-assembled. Example: enzymes, hormones and pigments.Protein is a very important component of protoplasm addition to the water. The role of proteins in cells, among others:1. As a catalyst for many chemical reactions contained in the cell, namely as components in the enzyme.2. Giving cell structural strength, namely tubulin, actin and myosin are involved in the formation of sitoskelet.3. Monitoring the permeability of the membrane, the proteins that make up the cell membrane4. Cause movement that occurs in the cell5. Monitor the activities of the cell6. Set the required levels of metabolites
Protein found in the membrane and cytoplasm (organelles) cells:1. Plasma membrane
The protein found in the plasma membrane of 60% of the entire weight of the plasma membrane. Protein found in the membrane mainly shaped stromatin, which is a type of protein that is not soluble in water. Because the cell membrane is semipermable then need a way to communicate with other cells and exchange nutrients with the extracellular space. These roles are mainly filled by proteins. Proteins are a class apart molecules not associated with lipid and consists of amino acids. Proteins are much larger than lipids and move more slowly, but there are some who engaged in targeted while others seem to float. The amount and type of protein in the membrane varies greatly in each of the cell membrane depends on the specific function to which it aspires. In general, membrane proteins are classified into two, namely the integral proteins and peripheral proteins.a. Integral ProteinsIntegrated membrane proteins (integral membrane proteins) are proteins that penetrate the membrane on both surfaces or membranes stretched between the two surfaces. Protein integral transmembrane protein with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane. Part of proteins exposed to the interior and exterior of the cell hydrophillic. Integral proteins can function as pores that allow ions selectively or nutrients into the cell. They also send signals into and out of cells. These proteins include several types, namely:1) transmembrane proteinAre proteins that penetrate the membrane on both sides, both once through the membrane (singlepass protein) or a few times through the membrane (multipass protein). Each copy of the membrane is α-helical structure with parts that are embedded in the lipid bilayer, so it makes sense that part of the primary structure of proteins through the membrane composed of hydrophobic amino acids. The hydrophobic part of the protein interacts with the tail of the phospholipids, while the hidrofiliknya appear on both the surface membrane (the outer and the cytoplasmic side). Part proteins protruding on both sides of the surface hydrophilic surely, so that they can interact with the aquatic environment.2) Protein Integral Part Primarily located in the surface membrane cell's interior sideThis protein is associated with the membrane bilayer through the mediation of a covalent bond with the fatty acid chains or chain prenyl lipids such specialized groups. This protein is synthesized as a soluble protein in the cytosol and are modified to bind to lipid groups covalently post-translational, ie in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi bodies.3) Integral proteins are part Primarily Located in extracellular side of the membrane surfaceThis protein binds to phosphatidyl choline inositol-mediated oligosaccharide covalently bonded.
b. Peripheral ProteinProtein is a protein located in the peripheral areas of both sides of the membrane (the cytoplasmic side and outer side) and interact with other membrane proteins in non-covalent, does not interact with the phospholipid double layer. Unlike span integral membrane proteins, peripheral proteins are on one side of the membrane and peripheral proteins are attached to proteins. Integral protein serves as an anchor point for the cytoskeleton or extracellular fibers.The function of integral and peripheral proteins in the plasma membrane varies greatly, including:a) As the enzyme attached to the membraneExamples of beta-glucosidase enzyme to free auxin in the cells at germination and integral membrane proteins of mitochondria or chloroplasts that serve to electron transport enzymes (oxidation and reduction events protin and electron carrier molecules to form ATP while simultaneously).b) As an active transport mediatorExamples of the cell wall of the small intestine to absorb nutrients while in the blood vessels.c) As a structural element of the plasma membraned) As the proton pump in the mitochondrial membranee) As a receptor (receiver) hormones and growth factors cellsExamples of estrogen attaches to estrogen receptors and give the command to carry out the synthesis of cell proteins as desired (eg cell marker secondary growth of animals) to sexual maturity.f) As the cell identityIdentity is usually identified as a protein facing out cells containing oligosaccharides. Proteins are called glycoproteins.g) As a way to distinguish between the self (self) and foreign cells (non-self)An example of the reaction of foreign cell transplantation, the cells themselves recognize foreign cells because of differences in the glycoprotein.2. CytoplasmCytosol is part of the cytoplasm in the form of liquid on the sidelines of organelles webbed. Cytosol is the dominant constituent cells are as much as 50%. In many soluble cytosolic enzyme involved in the metabolism of intermediates. Most of the enzymes present in the cytosol are synthesized by ribosomes. Some cytosolic proteins form fine strands called filaments. Filament is woven to form a framework called sitoskelet. Sitoskelet serves members in cell shape, organize and lead the movement sitioplasma streak and related and form a net work set enzymatic reactions.In the cell nucleus, the proteins contained in DNA is the main compounds that make up proteins. Proteins are synthesized on ribosomes through the process of replication and translation. Ribosomes are found in RE has a composition of 50% protein. In the ongoing process of the formation of the Golgi complex glycoprotein that is a combination of glucose and protein. Proteins are composed of amino acids brought to the ribosome RE, then forwarded to the Golgi complex which is where glycoprotein formation.B. LipidLipids are oily or greasy organic compounds that are insoluble in water, which can be extracted from cells and tissues by non-polar solvents, such as chloroform or ester. Polar lipids are a major component of cell membranes, the "place" of the metabolic reactions. Many of the properties of the cell membrane which is a reflection of the content of polar lipids. The cell membrane serves to protect the cells from the environment and also allows for compartment-compartment within the cell for metabolic activity, as well as the introduction or in the presence of different receptors that can recognize other cells, hormone binding tetentu, and feel a variety of other cues from the external environment . (Lehninger, 1982)Membrane lipids are phospholipids most. Phospholipids serve primarily as structural elements of the membrane and is never stored in large quantities. This lipid phosphorus in the form of phosphoric acid groups. The main phospholipids found in the membranes is fosfogliserida, containing two molecules of fatty acid ester bond with the hydroxyl group on the first and second glycerol.
Spingolipid is also a component of the membrane that has a polar head and two nonpolar tails, but these compounds do not contain glycerol. Spingolipid made up of one molecule of long-chain amino alcohol spingosin, or one of its compounds, and a polar alcohol on the head. There are 3 subclass spingolipid:1. SpingomielinThis compound contains fosfokolin or fosfoetanolamin as polar groups in the head. Spingolipid membranes found in virtually all animal cells, the myelin sheath that surrounds certain nerve cells.2. SerebrosidaSerebrosida contains no phosphates and has no electric charge because the polar head groups are neutral. Serebrosida glikospingolipid often referred to as the cluster at the head of this molecule is typically comprised of one or more sugar units. This group is glikolipida, a common name for the lipid having sugar groups. Some of the specific name of the galaktoserebrosida that is typically found in the membranes of brain cells and glukoserebrosida containing D-glucose present in the cell membrane of nerve tissue instead.C. CarbohydrateCarbohydrates are one of the compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates serve as a source of energy in animals and plants. In most plants, carbohydrates as well as an important constituent cell wall that acts as an element underpinning. Animal tissue has fewer carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are important such as glucose, galactose, glycogen, amino sugars and polymer.Carbohydrates are divided into several categories including:1. Monosaccharides.This is the simplest sugar with the empirical formula Cn (H2O) n. Classification of monosaccharides based on the number of carbon atoms such as triose, heksose. Pentose, ribose, and deoxyribose found in the nucleic acid molecules. Pentose and ribulose very important in photosynthesis. Medium glikose and heksose is the main source of energy in cells. Other important Heksose galaktose, located on the disaccharide lactose, and fructose (levulose) forming part of the sucrose.2. Disaccharide.Disaccharide is a sugar that is formed by the condensation of two monomers monosaccharide loses one molecule of water. Empiriknya Formula C12H22O11. This group is most important is sucrose and maltose in plants and lactose in animals.3. Polysaccharides.Polysaccharides are condensation products of many monosaccharide molecules by losing water molecules. Empiriknya formula (C6H10O5) n. When hydrolyzed produce simple sugar molecules. polysaccharides are the most important in living organisms are starch and glycogen reserves of food substances in plant and animal cells and cellulose which is an important structural element in plant cells. Starch is a combination of two monosaccharides is a long molecule composed of amylose and amylopectin branching an that has branches. While glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules. It is present in many tissues and organs, the largest found in the liver cells and muscle fibers.4. Complex polysaccharides and glycoproteins.Besides polysaccharide composed of hexose monomer, there is also a longer molecules and complexes containing amino nitrogen that can undergo acetylation or substitution with sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid. All of this is very important in polymer molecular organisms primarily as intercellular substance. This polysaccharide is free or bound to proteins as an example:a. Neutral polysaccharides.Asetilglikosamin example contains only the substance chitin in insects and crustaceae backers.b. Acidic mucopolysaccharide.Containing sulfuric acid or other molecule. Molkekul is highly basophilic. Those included in this group are adalam heparin, kondriotin sulfate, umbilical cord, hyaluronic acid.c. Glycoprotein.A complex composed of protein and carbohydrate prosthetic groups. Some monosaccharides such as galactose, mannose, as well as N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and sialic acid can be found in this molecule. Glycoproteins can be divided into two types namely intracellular glycoproteins and secretory glycoproteins.Carbohydrates on the plasma membrane bound proteins or lipids in the form glikolipida and glycoproteins. Glikolipida is a collection of various types of units such as monosaccharides different simple sugars D-glucose, D-galactose, D-mannose, L-fructose, L-arabinose, D-xylosa, and so on. Carbohydrates play an important role in various cell activities, including the immune system. Carbohydrates on the plasma membrane is the result of cell secretion and remained associated with the membrane forming glycocalyx. Usually the doctor can tell any normal or abnormal cells through glycolipid and glikoproteinnya.For the eukaryotic plasma membrane have carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins and fats. Carbohydrate component of the plasma memran amount to approximately 2-10% of the total weight of the plasma membrane, depending on the species and cell type. For example, the plasma membrane of red blood cells have a 52% protein, 40% fat and 8% carbohydrate. Of 8%, 7% fat bind to form glycolipids and 93% bind to proteins to form glycoproteins. Plasma membrane is an asymmetric membrane, lipid molecules in the outer membrane lipid in contrast to the inner membrane. Similarly, the second polypeptide is also different lipid bilayer sheets. Pacification of carbohydrates is also asymmetrical. Molecular chains of most glycolipids, glycoproteins and and PROTEO glikan the plasma membrane has never been on the cytosolic surface.D. Nucleic AcidsFriedrich Miescher (1844-1895) was the one who started the knowledge of chemistry and the cell nucleus. In 1868, Hoppe-Syler laboratory in Tubingen, he chose pus cells are found in the former wound, and then the cells are dissolved in dilute acid and in this way diperolehinti cells still attached to a protein. By adding a protein enzyme breaker he can get just the cell nucleus and the nucleus of the cell extraction to obtain a substance that dissolves in alkali but insoluble in acid. then this substance called "nuclein" now known as the nucleoprotein. Furthermore demonstrated that the nucleic acid is one of the compounds forming cells and normal tissues.Some of the important function of nucleic acids is to store, menstransmisi, and translating genetic information; metabolism between (intermediary metabolism) and energy information reactions; coenzyme energy carrier; coenzyme transfer of acetic acid, sugars, amino compounds and other biomolecules; coenzyme oxidation reduction reactions .Nucleic acids are one of the important macromolecules in living organisms. There are two kinds of nucleic acids in living things, ie in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid). Both are molecular carrier of genetic information. Types of polymer molecules of DNA and RNA structures that have the length of the repeated nucleotide monomers bond. The sequence of nucleotides in the nucleic acid to form a code that stores and forwards the information required cells in cell growth and reproduction. The nucleotides also perform energy transfer or reactant components from one system to another in the cell.Each nucleotide consists of nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, one or more phosphate, all the components are linked by covalent bonds. These will be discussed each constituent nucleotides.1. Nitrogen Basesconsists of two types, namely purine and pyrimidine nitrogen bases that ring nitrogen and carbon.a. Nitrogen pyrimidine basesConsisting of a single ring of carbon and nitrogen. Consisting of uracil (U), thymine (T), and cytosine (C)b. Nitrogen Bases PurinesConsists of two rings of carbon and nitrogen. Consisting of adenine (A) and Guanine (G).All the genetic information of living things lies in the linear arrangement of the four base. Therefore, the fourth base encodes all of the primary structure of proteins (which consists of 20 amino acids).
2. Pentose sugar
That sugar consists of five carbon atoms. Nuklrotida acids constituting pentose is ribose and deoxyribose. Pentose deoxyribose are that make up DNA, while ribose is a pentose that make up RNA. The difference between the two is the oxygen on carbon number 2 'does not exist in deoxyribose.
3. PhospatCluster molecule that binds phosphate to pentose sugar nitrogen base with ester bonds.Nucleotide is a nucleoside sugar group at the 5'-position of its binding phosphoric acid (phosphate groups) with the ester bond. Nucleoside consists of pentose (deoxyribose or ribose) binding of a base (purine or pyrimidine derivatives) via glycoside bonds. Here is a comparison of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides and nucleosides on:Nucleoside bases Nukleotid1. Purine
Adenine Adenosine Adenosine monoposfat (AMP) = acid adonilat
Monoposfat guanine guanosine guanosine (GMP) = acid guanilat
Hypoxanthine monoposfat inosine inosine (IMP) = acid inosinat2. Pyrimidine
Monoposfat uracil uridine uridine (UMP) = acid uridilat
Monoposfat cytidine cytidine cytosine (CMP) = acid sitidilat
Monoposfat thymidine thymidine thymine (TMP) = acid thymidylateNucleosides exist in free form has an important function for health, for example, puromisin that function as antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis (produced by streptomyces). Arabinosil cytosine and adenine arabinosil as anti-viral and anti-fungal. Nucleotides are as free molecules or bind with other nucleotides to form nucleic acids. An example can be seen in the following table:DNA RNA Nitrogen BasesAdenine (A)Guanine (G)Thymine (T)Cytosine (C)Uracil (U) Adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)Guanosine 5'-monophosphate (GMP)-------------------Sitidin 5'-monophosphate (CMP)Uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP) deoxy adenosine 5'-monophosphate (DAMP)Deoxy guanosine 5'-monophosphate (DGMP)Deoxy thymidine 5'-monophosphate (dTMP)Sitidin deoxy 5'-monophosphate (dCMP)------------------Some nucleotides have important functions in the cell such as adenosine 5 'monophosphate (AMP), adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), which plays an important role in the transfer of a phosphate group to receive and deliver energy.Another form of cyclic nucleotides such as adenosine 3'-5'-cyclic monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP-) acts as a secondary messenger preformance adrenal hormones controlling metabolism. Another free nucleotides cyclic guanosine monophosphate is (cGMP = cyclic GMP) which allegedly serves as an enzyme inhibitor that is stimulated by cAMP. Also note that some trifosfonukleotida besides ATP plays a role in various reactionsin the cell. For example, CTP (Sitidin 5'-triphosphate) is involved in the biosynthesis of phospholipids, UTP role in the biosynthesis of various carbohydrate compounds. CTP and UTP are also used in the biosynthesis of RNA and DNA1) The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)This acid is a polymer consisting of deoxyribonucleotides molecules bound to one another to form a long polynucleotide chains. Long DNA molecules are formed by bonding between atoms C number 3 to number 5 on the C atom molecule-mediated deoxyribose phosphate groups. DNA containing a chemically karakteri / properties as follows:
a. Having a deoxyribose sugar group.
b. Nitrogenous bases guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) and adenine (A).
c. It has a chain of anti-parallel double helix
d. The content of nitrogen bases between the two chains together many specific and paired with one another. Guanine always pairs with cytosine (G-C), and adenine paired with thymine (A - T), so that the amount of guanine always equals the amount of cytosine. Likewise adenine and thymine.2) The structure of ribonucleic acid (RNA)Ribonucleic acid is a polymer composed of molecules ribonucleotides. Such DNA ribonucleic acid is formed by the bonding between atoms C No. 3 with the number 5 on the C atom of ribose molecule by means of a phosphate group. The formula is the same as the picture but the sugar is ribose 10.2 (C atom holding the number 2 OH) RNA have different specific properties of the chemical properties of DNA, ie in terms of:
a. Pentosanya sugar is ribose
b. RNA has ribonucleotide guanine (G), cytosine (C), adenine (A) and Uracil (U) instead of Thymine in DNA.
c. Fosfodiesternya strand is a single strand that can fold into a hairpin like DNA strands ganda.Beda the double helix shape of the molecule.
d. Percentage bass does not have the same content, not necessarily the same pair adenine with uracil and cytosine with guanine not be the same.There are three types of RNA that is tRNA (transfer RNA), mRNA (messenger RNA) and rRNA (ribosomal RNA). The three kinds of RNA have different functions, but all three together have an important role in protein synthesis. Here merupakn DNA to RNA structure comparison:In the cell, nucleic acids exist in three organelles, namely mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the nucleus of the cell. Here's the explanation:1. The cell nucleus (nucleus)This cell nucleus has three components, namely nukleoplasma, chromosomes, and nucleolus. In the nucleus, DNA is in the chromosomes. In the chromosomes are threads of DNA and protein synthesis plays a role in heredity factor. In addition to the DNA in the nucleus also contained RNA.2. MitochondriaNucleic acid contained in the mitochondria is deoksiribinukleat (DNA). Mitochondrial DNA contained in an organelle matrix is expressed as the mitochondrial genome. Mitochondrial DNA acts as a molecular marker for population genetic studies, tracking and tracing the origin of some degenerate diseases, aging, and cancer.3. ChloroplastsAccording to De Roberties, et al (1975:240) that between 3-5% of the dry weight of the chloroplast is RNA. DNA in the chloroplast genetic system known as non kromosal or cytoplasmic heredity. Additionally chloroplasts have DNA and RNA specific with the capacity in protein synthesis and the division process.
Here are some examples of macromolecules that are important in living things.1. Polysaccharides
Is a product of polymerization of monosaccharides, forming starch, cellulose, glycogen, or the polysaccharide complex2. Protein and Polypeptide
An arrangement of 20 kinds of amino acids linked by peptide bonds3. Nucleic Acids
It is a chain of four different nukleotid. In the DNA molecule of nucleic acid is the primary source of genetic informationMacromolecule macromolecule is the most numerous and complex activity. The following will explain more about the structure and function of each of these macromolecules.A. ProteinProtein is an arrangement of 20 kinds of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Based on the arrangement of molecules, proteins are grouped into:1. Structural Proteins act as an advocate and supportera. Structural intracellular inside the cell plays a role in the formation of sitoskeletExample: tubulin, actin and myosin.b. extracellular structural contained in multicellular organismsExample: collagen and keratin2. Dynamic Protein is a protein involved in cell metabolism, easily broken down and re-assembled. Example: enzymes, hormones and pigments.Protein is a very important component of protoplasm addition to the water. The role of proteins in cells, among others:1. As a catalyst for many chemical reactions contained in the cell, namely as components in the enzyme.2. Giving cell structural strength, namely tubulin, actin and myosin are involved in the formation of sitoskelet.3. Monitoring the permeability of the membrane, the proteins that make up the cell membrane4. Cause movement that occurs in the cell5. Monitor the activities of the cell6. Set the required levels of metabolites
Protein found in the membrane and cytoplasm (organelles) cells:1. Plasma membrane
The protein found in the plasma membrane of 60% of the entire weight of the plasma membrane. Protein found in the membrane mainly shaped stromatin, which is a type of protein that is not soluble in water. Because the cell membrane is semipermable then need a way to communicate with other cells and exchange nutrients with the extracellular space. These roles are mainly filled by proteins. Proteins are a class apart molecules not associated with lipid and consists of amino acids. Proteins are much larger than lipids and move more slowly, but there are some who engaged in targeted while others seem to float. The amount and type of protein in the membrane varies greatly in each of the cell membrane depends on the specific function to which it aspires. In general, membrane proteins are classified into two, namely the integral proteins and peripheral proteins.a. Integral ProteinsIntegrated membrane proteins (integral membrane proteins) are proteins that penetrate the membrane on both surfaces or membranes stretched between the two surfaces. Protein integral transmembrane protein with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane. Part of proteins exposed to the interior and exterior of the cell hydrophillic. Integral proteins can function as pores that allow ions selectively or nutrients into the cell. They also send signals into and out of cells. These proteins include several types, namely:1) transmembrane proteinAre proteins that penetrate the membrane on both sides, both once through the membrane (singlepass protein) or a few times through the membrane (multipass protein). Each copy of the membrane is α-helical structure with parts that are embedded in the lipid bilayer, so it makes sense that part of the primary structure of proteins through the membrane composed of hydrophobic amino acids. The hydrophobic part of the protein interacts with the tail of the phospholipids, while the hidrofiliknya appear on both the surface membrane (the outer and the cytoplasmic side). Part proteins protruding on both sides of the surface hydrophilic surely, so that they can interact with the aquatic environment.2) Protein Integral Part Primarily located in the surface membrane cell's interior sideThis protein is associated with the membrane bilayer through the mediation of a covalent bond with the fatty acid chains or chain prenyl lipids such specialized groups. This protein is synthesized as a soluble protein in the cytosol and are modified to bind to lipid groups covalently post-translational, ie in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi bodies.3) Integral proteins are part Primarily Located in extracellular side of the membrane surfaceThis protein binds to phosphatidyl choline inositol-mediated oligosaccharide covalently bonded.
b. Peripheral ProteinProtein is a protein located in the peripheral areas of both sides of the membrane (the cytoplasmic side and outer side) and interact with other membrane proteins in non-covalent, does not interact with the phospholipid double layer. Unlike span integral membrane proteins, peripheral proteins are on one side of the membrane and peripheral proteins are attached to proteins. Integral protein serves as an anchor point for the cytoskeleton or extracellular fibers.The function of integral and peripheral proteins in the plasma membrane varies greatly, including:a) As the enzyme attached to the membraneExamples of beta-glucosidase enzyme to free auxin in the cells at germination and integral membrane proteins of mitochondria or chloroplasts that serve to electron transport enzymes (oxidation and reduction events protin and electron carrier molecules to form ATP while simultaneously).b) As an active transport mediatorExamples of the cell wall of the small intestine to absorb nutrients while in the blood vessels.c) As a structural element of the plasma membraned) As the proton pump in the mitochondrial membranee) As a receptor (receiver) hormones and growth factors cellsExamples of estrogen attaches to estrogen receptors and give the command to carry out the synthesis of cell proteins as desired (eg cell marker secondary growth of animals) to sexual maturity.f) As the cell identityIdentity is usually identified as a protein facing out cells containing oligosaccharides. Proteins are called glycoproteins.g) As a way to distinguish between the self (self) and foreign cells (non-self)An example of the reaction of foreign cell transplantation, the cells themselves recognize foreign cells because of differences in the glycoprotein.2. CytoplasmCytosol is part of the cytoplasm in the form of liquid on the sidelines of organelles webbed. Cytosol is the dominant constituent cells are as much as 50%. In many soluble cytosolic enzyme involved in the metabolism of intermediates. Most of the enzymes present in the cytosol are synthesized by ribosomes. Some cytosolic proteins form fine strands called filaments. Filament is woven to form a framework called sitoskelet. Sitoskelet serves members in cell shape, organize and lead the movement sitioplasma streak and related and form a net work set enzymatic reactions.In the cell nucleus, the proteins contained in DNA is the main compounds that make up proteins. Proteins are synthesized on ribosomes through the process of replication and translation. Ribosomes are found in RE has a composition of 50% protein. In the ongoing process of the formation of the Golgi complex glycoprotein that is a combination of glucose and protein. Proteins are composed of amino acids brought to the ribosome RE, then forwarded to the Golgi complex which is where glycoprotein formation.B. LipidLipids are oily or greasy organic compounds that are insoluble in water, which can be extracted from cells and tissues by non-polar solvents, such as chloroform or ester. Polar lipids are a major component of cell membranes, the "place" of the metabolic reactions. Many of the properties of the cell membrane which is a reflection of the content of polar lipids. The cell membrane serves to protect the cells from the environment and also allows for compartment-compartment within the cell for metabolic activity, as well as the introduction or in the presence of different receptors that can recognize other cells, hormone binding tetentu, and feel a variety of other cues from the external environment . (Lehninger, 1982)Membrane lipids are phospholipids most. Phospholipids serve primarily as structural elements of the membrane and is never stored in large quantities. This lipid phosphorus in the form of phosphoric acid groups. The main phospholipids found in the membranes is fosfogliserida, containing two molecules of fatty acid ester bond with the hydroxyl group on the first and second glycerol.
Spingolipid is also a component of the membrane that has a polar head and two nonpolar tails, but these compounds do not contain glycerol. Spingolipid made up of one molecule of long-chain amino alcohol spingosin, or one of its compounds, and a polar alcohol on the head. There are 3 subclass spingolipid:1. SpingomielinThis compound contains fosfokolin or fosfoetanolamin as polar groups in the head. Spingolipid membranes found in virtually all animal cells, the myelin sheath that surrounds certain nerve cells.2. SerebrosidaSerebrosida contains no phosphates and has no electric charge because the polar head groups are neutral. Serebrosida glikospingolipid often referred to as the cluster at the head of this molecule is typically comprised of one or more sugar units. This group is glikolipida, a common name for the lipid having sugar groups. Some of the specific name of the galaktoserebrosida that is typically found in the membranes of brain cells and glukoserebrosida containing D-glucose present in the cell membrane of nerve tissue instead.C. CarbohydrateCarbohydrates are one of the compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates serve as a source of energy in animals and plants. In most plants, carbohydrates as well as an important constituent cell wall that acts as an element underpinning. Animal tissue has fewer carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are important such as glucose, galactose, glycogen, amino sugars and polymer.Carbohydrates are divided into several categories including:1. Monosaccharides.This is the simplest sugar with the empirical formula Cn (H2O) n. Classification of monosaccharides based on the number of carbon atoms such as triose, heksose. Pentose, ribose, and deoxyribose found in the nucleic acid molecules. Pentose and ribulose very important in photosynthesis. Medium glikose and heksose is the main source of energy in cells. Other important Heksose galaktose, located on the disaccharide lactose, and fructose (levulose) forming part of the sucrose.2. Disaccharide.Disaccharide is a sugar that is formed by the condensation of two monomers monosaccharide loses one molecule of water. Empiriknya Formula C12H22O11. This group is most important is sucrose and maltose in plants and lactose in animals.3. Polysaccharides.Polysaccharides are condensation products of many monosaccharide molecules by losing water molecules. Empiriknya formula (C6H10O5) n. When hydrolyzed produce simple sugar molecules. polysaccharides are the most important in living organisms are starch and glycogen reserves of food substances in plant and animal cells and cellulose which is an important structural element in plant cells. Starch is a combination of two monosaccharides is a long molecule composed of amylose and amylopectin branching an that has branches. While glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules. It is present in many tissues and organs, the largest found in the liver cells and muscle fibers.4. Complex polysaccharides and glycoproteins.Besides polysaccharide composed of hexose monomer, there is also a longer molecules and complexes containing amino nitrogen that can undergo acetylation or substitution with sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid. All of this is very important in polymer molecular organisms primarily as intercellular substance. This polysaccharide is free or bound to proteins as an example:a. Neutral polysaccharides.Asetilglikosamin example contains only the substance chitin in insects and crustaceae backers.b. Acidic mucopolysaccharide.Containing sulfuric acid or other molecule. Molkekul is highly basophilic. Those included in this group are adalam heparin, kondriotin sulfate, umbilical cord, hyaluronic acid.c. Glycoprotein.A complex composed of protein and carbohydrate prosthetic groups. Some monosaccharides such as galactose, mannose, as well as N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and sialic acid can be found in this molecule. Glycoproteins can be divided into two types namely intracellular glycoproteins and secretory glycoproteins.Carbohydrates on the plasma membrane bound proteins or lipids in the form glikolipida and glycoproteins. Glikolipida is a collection of various types of units such as monosaccharides different simple sugars D-glucose, D-galactose, D-mannose, L-fructose, L-arabinose, D-xylosa, and so on. Carbohydrates play an important role in various cell activities, including the immune system. Carbohydrates on the plasma membrane is the result of cell secretion and remained associated with the membrane forming glycocalyx. Usually the doctor can tell any normal or abnormal cells through glycolipid and glikoproteinnya.For the eukaryotic plasma membrane have carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins and fats. Carbohydrate component of the plasma memran amount to approximately 2-10% of the total weight of the plasma membrane, depending on the species and cell type. For example, the plasma membrane of red blood cells have a 52% protein, 40% fat and 8% carbohydrate. Of 8%, 7% fat bind to form glycolipids and 93% bind to proteins to form glycoproteins. Plasma membrane is an asymmetric membrane, lipid molecules in the outer membrane lipid in contrast to the inner membrane. Similarly, the second polypeptide is also different lipid bilayer sheets. Pacification of carbohydrates is also asymmetrical. Molecular chains of most glycolipids, glycoproteins and and PROTEO glikan the plasma membrane has never been on the cytosolic surface.D. Nucleic AcidsFriedrich Miescher (1844-1895) was the one who started the knowledge of chemistry and the cell nucleus. In 1868, Hoppe-Syler laboratory in Tubingen, he chose pus cells are found in the former wound, and then the cells are dissolved in dilute acid and in this way diperolehinti cells still attached to a protein. By adding a protein enzyme breaker he can get just the cell nucleus and the nucleus of the cell extraction to obtain a substance that dissolves in alkali but insoluble in acid. then this substance called "nuclein" now known as the nucleoprotein. Furthermore demonstrated that the nucleic acid is one of the compounds forming cells and normal tissues.Some of the important function of nucleic acids is to store, menstransmisi, and translating genetic information; metabolism between (intermediary metabolism) and energy information reactions; coenzyme energy carrier; coenzyme transfer of acetic acid, sugars, amino compounds and other biomolecules; coenzyme oxidation reduction reactions .Nucleic acids are one of the important macromolecules in living organisms. There are two kinds of nucleic acids in living things, ie in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid). Both are molecular carrier of genetic information. Types of polymer molecules of DNA and RNA structures that have the length of the repeated nucleotide monomers bond. The sequence of nucleotides in the nucleic acid to form a code that stores and forwards the information required cells in cell growth and reproduction. The nucleotides also perform energy transfer or reactant components from one system to another in the cell.Each nucleotide consists of nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, one or more phosphate, all the components are linked by covalent bonds. These will be discussed each constituent nucleotides.1. Nitrogen Basesconsists of two types, namely purine and pyrimidine nitrogen bases that ring nitrogen and carbon.a. Nitrogen pyrimidine basesConsisting of a single ring of carbon and nitrogen. Consisting of uracil (U), thymine (T), and cytosine (C)b. Nitrogen Bases PurinesConsists of two rings of carbon and nitrogen. Consisting of adenine (A) and Guanine (G).All the genetic information of living things lies in the linear arrangement of the four base. Therefore, the fourth base encodes all of the primary structure of proteins (which consists of 20 amino acids).
2. Pentose sugar
That sugar consists of five carbon atoms. Nuklrotida acids constituting pentose is ribose and deoxyribose. Pentose deoxyribose are that make up DNA, while ribose is a pentose that make up RNA. The difference between the two is the oxygen on carbon number 2 'does not exist in deoxyribose.
3. PhospatCluster molecule that binds phosphate to pentose sugar nitrogen base with ester bonds.Nucleotide is a nucleoside sugar group at the 5'-position of its binding phosphoric acid (phosphate groups) with the ester bond. Nucleoside consists of pentose (deoxyribose or ribose) binding of a base (purine or pyrimidine derivatives) via glycoside bonds. Here is a comparison of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides and nucleosides on:Nucleoside bases Nukleotid1. Purine
Adenine Adenosine Adenosine monoposfat (AMP) = acid adonilat
Monoposfat guanine guanosine guanosine (GMP) = acid guanilat
Hypoxanthine monoposfat inosine inosine (IMP) = acid inosinat2. Pyrimidine
Monoposfat uracil uridine uridine (UMP) = acid uridilat
Monoposfat cytidine cytidine cytosine (CMP) = acid sitidilat
Monoposfat thymidine thymidine thymine (TMP) = acid thymidylateNucleosides exist in free form has an important function for health, for example, puromisin that function as antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis (produced by streptomyces). Arabinosil cytosine and adenine arabinosil as anti-viral and anti-fungal. Nucleotides are as free molecules or bind with other nucleotides to form nucleic acids. An example can be seen in the following table:DNA RNA Nitrogen BasesAdenine (A)Guanine (G)Thymine (T)Cytosine (C)Uracil (U) Adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)Guanosine 5'-monophosphate (GMP)-------------------Sitidin 5'-monophosphate (CMP)Uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP) deoxy adenosine 5'-monophosphate (DAMP)Deoxy guanosine 5'-monophosphate (DGMP)Deoxy thymidine 5'-monophosphate (dTMP)Sitidin deoxy 5'-monophosphate (dCMP)------------------Some nucleotides have important functions in the cell such as adenosine 5 'monophosphate (AMP), adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), which plays an important role in the transfer of a phosphate group to receive and deliver energy.Another form of cyclic nucleotides such as adenosine 3'-5'-cyclic monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP-) acts as a secondary messenger preformance adrenal hormones controlling metabolism. Another free nucleotides cyclic guanosine monophosphate is (cGMP = cyclic GMP) which allegedly serves as an enzyme inhibitor that is stimulated by cAMP. Also note that some trifosfonukleotida besides ATP plays a role in various reactionsin the cell. For example, CTP (Sitidin 5'-triphosphate) is involved in the biosynthesis of phospholipids, UTP role in the biosynthesis of various carbohydrate compounds. CTP and UTP are also used in the biosynthesis of RNA and DNA1) The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)This acid is a polymer consisting of deoxyribonucleotides molecules bound to one another to form a long polynucleotide chains. Long DNA molecules are formed by bonding between atoms C number 3 to number 5 on the C atom molecule-mediated deoxyribose phosphate groups. DNA containing a chemically karakteri / properties as follows:
a. Having a deoxyribose sugar group.
b. Nitrogenous bases guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) and adenine (A).
c. It has a chain of anti-parallel double helix
d. The content of nitrogen bases between the two chains together many specific and paired with one another. Guanine always pairs with cytosine (G-C), and adenine paired with thymine (A - T), so that the amount of guanine always equals the amount of cytosine. Likewise adenine and thymine.2) The structure of ribonucleic acid (RNA)Ribonucleic acid is a polymer composed of molecules ribonucleotides. Such DNA ribonucleic acid is formed by the bonding between atoms C No. 3 with the number 5 on the C atom of ribose molecule by means of a phosphate group. The formula is the same as the picture but the sugar is ribose 10.2 (C atom holding the number 2 OH) RNA have different specific properties of the chemical properties of DNA, ie in terms of:
a. Pentosanya sugar is ribose
b. RNA has ribonucleotide guanine (G), cytosine (C), adenine (A) and Uracil (U) instead of Thymine in DNA.
c. Fosfodiesternya strand is a single strand that can fold into a hairpin like DNA strands ganda.Beda the double helix shape of the molecule.
d. Percentage bass does not have the same content, not necessarily the same pair adenine with uracil and cytosine with guanine not be the same.There are three types of RNA that is tRNA (transfer RNA), mRNA (messenger RNA) and rRNA (ribosomal RNA). The three kinds of RNA have different functions, but all three together have an important role in protein synthesis. Here merupakn DNA to RNA structure comparison:In the cell, nucleic acids exist in three organelles, namely mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the nucleus of the cell. Here's the explanation:1. The cell nucleus (nucleus)This cell nucleus has three components, namely nukleoplasma, chromosomes, and nucleolus. In the nucleus, DNA is in the chromosomes. In the chromosomes are threads of DNA and protein synthesis plays a role in heredity factor. In addition to the DNA in the nucleus also contained RNA.2. MitochondriaNucleic acid contained in the mitochondria is deoksiribinukleat (DNA). Mitochondrial DNA contained in an organelle matrix is expressed as the mitochondrial genome. Mitochondrial DNA acts as a molecular marker for population genetic studies, tracking and tracing the origin of some degenerate diseases, aging, and cancer.3. ChloroplastsAccording to De Roberties, et al (1975:240) that between 3-5% of the dry weight of the chloroplast is RNA. DNA in the chloroplast genetic system known as non kromosal or cytoplasmic heredity. Additionally chloroplasts have DNA and RNA specific with the capacity in protein synthesis and the division process.Cell is comprised by many macromolecules that have structures and functions vary. Large macromolecules within cells formed as a composition of repeated units called monomers struktutr basis, the monomers are connected to each other by covalent bonds. Monomers are linked by a chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bonded to each other from one molecule to another molecule by removing one molecule of water (a condensation reaction or because the molecule is lost is water, the reaction can be called a dehydration reaction). Monomer then strung together to form a polymer through a process known as condensation synthesis. While a shaped macromolecules called polymers.When two monomers join it will free up water molecules (as previously described). One monomer loss hydroxy (OH) and the monomer others will lose a group of hydrogen (H).
Here are some examples of macromolecules that are important in living things.1. Polysaccharides
Is a product of polymerization of monosaccharides, forming starch, cellulose, glycogen, or the polysaccharide complex2. Protein and Polypeptide
An arrangement of 20 kinds of amino acids linked by peptide bonds3. Nucleic Acids
It is a chain of four different nukleotid. In the DNA molecule of nucleic acid is the primary source of genetic informationMacromolecule macromolecule is the most numerous and complex activity. The following will explain more about the structure and function of each of these macromolecules.A. ProteinProtein is an arrangement of 20 kinds of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Based on the arrangement of molecules, proteins are grouped into:1. Structural Proteins act as an advocate and supportera. Structural intracellular inside the cell plays a role in the formation of sitoskeletExample: tubulin, actin and myosin.b. extracellular structural contained in multicellular organismsExample: collagen and keratin2. Dynamic Protein is a protein involved in cell metabolism, easily broken down and re-assembled. Example: enzymes, hormones and pigments.Protein is a very important component of protoplasm addition to the water. The role of proteins in cells, among others:1. As a catalyst for many chemical reactions contained in the cell, namely as components in the enzyme.2. Giving cell structural strength, namely tubulin, actin and myosin are involved in the formation of sitoskelet.3. Monitoring the permeability of the membrane, the proteins that make up the cell membrane4. Cause movement that occurs in the cell5. Monitor the activities of the cell6. Set the required levels of metabolites
Protein found in the membrane and cytoplasm (organelles) cells:1. Plasma membrane
The protein found in the plasma membrane of 60% of the entire weight of the plasma membrane. Protein found in the membrane mainly shaped stromatin, which is a type of protein that is not soluble in water. Because the cell membrane is semipermable then need a way to communicate with other cells and exchange nutrients with the extracellular space. These roles are mainly filled by proteins. Proteins are a class apart molecules not associated with lipid and consists of amino acids. Proteins are much larger than lipids and move more slowly, but there are some who engaged in targeted while others seem to float. The amount and type of protein in the membrane varies greatly in each of the cell membrane depends on the specific function to which it aspires. In general, membrane proteins are classified into two, namely the integral proteins and peripheral proteins.a. Integral ProteinsIntegrated membrane proteins (integral membrane proteins) are proteins that penetrate the membrane on both surfaces or membranes stretched between the two surfaces. Protein integral transmembrane protein with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane. Part of proteins exposed to the interior and exterior of the cell hydrophillic. Integral proteins can function as pores that allow ions selectively or nutrients into the cell. They also send signals into and out of cells. These proteins include several types, namely:1) transmembrane proteinAre proteins that penetrate the membrane on both sides, both once through the membrane (singlepass protein) or a few times through the membrane (multipass protein). Each copy of the membrane is α-helical structure with parts that are embedded in the lipid bilayer, so it makes sense that part of the primary structure of proteins through the membrane composed of hydrophobic amino acids. The hydrophobic part of the protein interacts with the tail of the phospholipids, while the hidrofiliknya appear on both the surface membrane (the outer and the cytoplasmic side). Part proteins protruding on both sides of the surface hydrophilic surely, so that they can interact with the aquatic environment.2) Protein Integral Part Primarily located in the surface membrane cell's interior sideThis protein is associated with the membrane bilayer through the mediation of a covalent bond with the fatty acid chains or chain prenyl lipids such specialized groups. This protein is synthesized as a soluble protein in the cytosol and are modified to bind to lipid groups covalently post-translational, ie in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi bodies.3) Integral proteins are part Primarily Located in extracellular side of the membrane surfaceThis protein binds to phosphatidyl choline inositol-mediated oligosaccharide covalently bonded.
b. Peripheral ProteinProtein is a protein located in the peripheral areas of both sides of the membrane (the cytoplasmic side and outer side) and interact with other membrane proteins in non-covalent, does not interact with the phospholipid double layer. Unlike span integral membrane proteins, peripheral proteins are on one side of the membrane and peripheral proteins are attached to proteins. Integral protein serves as an anchor point for the cytoskeleton or extracellular fibers.The function of integral and peripheral proteins in the plasma membrane varies greatly, including:a) As the enzyme attached to the membraneExamples of beta-glucosidase enzyme to free auxin in the cells at germination and integral membrane proteins of mitochondria or chloroplasts that serve to electron transport enzymes (oxidation and reduction events protin and electron carrier molecules to form ATP while simultaneously).b) As an active transport mediatorExamples of the cell wall of the small intestine to absorb nutrients while in the blood vessels.c) As a structural element of the plasma membraned) As the proton pump in the mitochondrial membranee) As a receptor (receiver) hormones and growth factors cellsExamples of estrogen attaches to estrogen receptors and give the command to carry out the synthesis of cell proteins as desired (eg cell marker secondary growth of animals) to sexual maturity.f) As the cell identityIdentity is usually identified as a protein facing out cells containing oligosaccharides. Proteins are called glycoproteins.g) As a way to distinguish between the self (self) and foreign cells (non-self)An example of the reaction of foreign cell transplantation, the cells themselves recognize foreign cells because of differences in the glycoprotein.2. CytoplasmCytosol is part of the cytoplasm in the form of liquid on the sidelines of organelles webbed. Cytosol is the dominant constituent cells are as much as 50%. In many soluble cytosolic enzyme involved in the metabolism of intermediates. Most of the enzymes present in the cytosol are synthesized by ribosomes. Some cytosolic proteins form fine strands called filaments. Filament is woven to form a framework called sitoskelet. Sitoskelet serves members in cell shape, organize and lead the movement sitioplasma streak and related and form a net work set enzymatic reactions.In the cell nucleus, the proteins contained in DNA is the main compounds that make up proteins. Proteins are synthesized on ribosomes through the process of replication and translation. Ribosomes are found in RE has a composition of 50% protein. In the ongoing process of the formation of the Golgi complex glycoprotein that is a combination of glucose and protein. Proteins are composed of amino acids brought to the ribosome RE, then forwarded to the Golgi complex which is where glycoprotein formation.B. LipidLipids are oily or greasy organic compounds that are insoluble in water, which can be extracted from cells and tissues by non-polar solvents, such as chloroform or ester. Polar lipids are a major component of cell membranes, the "place" of the metabolic reactions. Many of the properties of the cell membrane which is a reflection of the content of polar lipids. The cell membrane serves to protect the cells from the environment and also allows for compartment-compartment within the cell for metabolic activity, as well as the introduction or in the presence of different receptors that can recognize other cells, hormone binding tetentu, and feel a variety of other cues from the external environment . (Lehninger, 1982)Membrane lipids are phospholipids most. Phospholipids serve primarily as structural elements of the membrane and is never stored in large quantities. This lipid phosphorus in the form of phosphoric acid groups. The main phospholipids found in the membranes is fosfogliserida, containing two molecules of fatty acid ester bond with the hydroxyl group on the first and second glycerol.
Spingolipid is also a component of the membrane that has a polar head and two nonpolar tails, but these compounds do not contain glycerol. Spingolipid made up of one molecule of long-chain amino alcohol spingosin, or one of its compounds, and a polar alcohol on the head. There are 3 subclass spingolipid:1. SpingomielinThis compound contains fosfokolin or fosfoetanolamin as polar groups in the head. Spingolipid membranes found in virtually all animal cells, the myelin sheath that surrounds certain nerve cells.2. SerebrosidaSerebrosida contains no phosphates and has no electric charge because the polar head groups are neutral. Serebrosida glikospingolipid often referred to as the cluster at the head of this molecule is typically comprised of one or more sugar units. This group is glikolipida, a common name for the lipid having sugar groups. Some of the specific name of the galaktoserebrosida that is typically found in the membranes of brain cells and glukoserebrosida containing D-glucose present in the cell membrane of nerve tissue instead.C. CarbohydrateCarbohydrates are one of the compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates serve as a source of energy in animals and plants. In most plants, carbohydrates as well as an important constituent cell wall that acts as an element underpinning. Animal tissue has fewer carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are important such as glucose, galactose, glycogen, amino sugars and polymer.Carbohydrates are divided into several categories including:1. Monosaccharides.This is the simplest sugar with the empirical formula Cn (H2O) n. Classification of monosaccharides based on the number of carbon atoms such as triose, heksose. Pentose, ribose, and deoxyribose found in the nucleic acid molecules. Pentose and ribulose very important in photosynthesis. Medium glikose and heksose is the main source of energy in cells. Other important Heksose galaktose, located on the disaccharide lactose, and fructose (levulose) forming part of the sucrose.2. Disaccharide.Disaccharide is a sugar that is formed by the condensation of two monomers monosaccharide loses one molecule of water. Empiriknya Formula C12H22O11. This group is most important is sucrose and maltose in plants and lactose in animals.3. Polysaccharides.Polysaccharides are condensation products of many monosaccharide molecules by losing water molecules. Empiriknya formula (C6H10O5) n. When hydrolyzed produce simple sugar molecules. polysaccharides are the most important in living organisms are starch and glycogen reserves of food substances in plant and animal cells and cellulose which is an important structural element in plant cells. Starch is a combination of two monosaccharides is a long molecule composed of amylose and amylopectin branching an that has branches. While glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules. It is present in many tissues and organs, the largest found in the liver cells and muscle fibers.4. Complex polysaccharides and glycoproteins.Besides polysaccharide composed of hexose monomer, there is also a longer molecules and complexes containing amino nitrogen that can undergo acetylation or substitution with sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid. All of this is very important in polymer molecular organisms primarily as intercellular substance. This polysaccharide is free or bound to proteins as an example:a. Neutral polysaccharides.Asetilglikosamin example contains only the substance chitin in insects and crustaceae backers.b. Acidic mucopolysaccharide.Containing sulfuric acid or other molecule. Molkekul is highly basophilic. Those included in this group are adalam heparin, kondriotin sulfate, umbilical cord, hyaluronic acid.c. Glycoprotein.A complex composed of protein and carbohydrate prosthetic groups. Some monosaccharides such as galactose, mannose, as well as N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and sialic acid can be found in this molecule. Glycoproteins can be divided into two types namely intracellular glycoproteins and secretory glycoproteins.Carbohydrates on the plasma membrane bound proteins or lipids in the form glikolipida and glycoproteins. Glikolipida is a collection of various types of units such as monosaccharides different simple sugars D-glucose, D-galactose, D-mannose, L-fructose, L-arabinose, D-xylosa, and so on. Carbohydrates play an important role in various cell activities, including the immune system. Carbohydrates on the plasma membrane is the result of cell secretion and remained associated with the membrane forming glycocalyx. Usually the doctor can tell any normal or abnormal cells through glycolipid and glikoproteinnya.For the eukaryotic plasma membrane have carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins and fats. Carbohydrate component of the plasma memran amount to approximately 2-10% of the total weight of the plasma membrane, depending on the species and cell type. For example, the plasma membrane of red blood cells have a 52% protein, 40% fat and 8% carbohydrate. Of 8%, 7% fat bind to form glycolipids and 93% bind to proteins to form glycoproteins. Plasma membrane is an asymmetric membrane, lipid molecules in the outer membrane lipid in contrast to the inner membrane. Similarly, the second polypeptide is also different lipid bilayer sheets. Pacification of carbohydrates is also asymmetrical. Molecular chains of most glycolipids, glycoproteins and and PROTEO glikan the plasma membrane has never been on the cytosolic surface.D. Nucleic AcidsFriedrich Miescher (1844-1895) was the one who started the knowledge of chemistry and the cell nucleus. In 1868, Hoppe-Syler laboratory in Tubingen, he chose pus cells are found in the former wound, and then the cells are dissolved in dilute acid and in this way diperolehinti cells still attached to a protein. By adding a protein enzyme breaker he can get just the cell nucleus and the nucleus of the cell extraction to obtain a substance that dissolves in alkali but insoluble in acid. then this substance called "nuclein" now known as the nucleoprotein. Furthermore demonstrated that the nucleic acid is one of the compounds forming cells and normal tissues.Some of the important function of nucleic acids is to store, menstransmisi, and translating genetic information; metabolism between (intermediary metabolism) and energy information reactions; coenzyme energy carrier; coenzyme transfer of acetic acid, sugars, amino compounds and other biomolecules; coenzyme oxidation reduction reactions .Nucleic acids are one of the important macromolecules in living organisms. There are two kinds of nucleic acids in living things, ie in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid). Both are molecular carrier of genetic information. Types of polymer molecules of DNA and RNA structures that have the length of the repeated nucleotide monomers bond. The sequence of nucleotides in the nucleic acid to form a code that stores and forwards the information required cells in cell growth and reproduction. The nucleotides also perform energy transfer or reactant components from one system to another in the cell.Each nucleotide consists of nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, one or more phosphate, all the components are linked by covalent bonds. These will be discussed each constituent nucleotides.1. Nitrogen Basesconsists of two types, namely purine and pyrimidine nitrogen bases that ring nitrogen and carbon.a. Nitrogen pyrimidine basesConsisting of a single ring of carbon and nitrogen. Consisting of uracil (U), thymine (T), and cytosine (C)b. Nitrogen Bases PurinesConsists of two rings of carbon and nitrogen. Consisting of adenine (A) and Guanine (G).All the genetic information of living things lies in the linear arrangement of the four base. Therefore, the fourth base encodes all of the primary structure of proteins (which consists of 20 amino acids).
2. Pentose sugar
That sugar consists of five carbon atoms. Nuklrotida acids constituting pentose is ribose and deoxyribose. Pentose deoxyribose are that make up DNA, while ribose is a pentose that make up RNA. The difference between the two is the oxygen on carbon number 2 'does not exist in deoxyribose.
3. PhospatCluster molecule that binds phosphate to pentose sugar nitrogen base with ester bonds.Nucleotide is a nucleoside sugar group at the 5'-position of its binding phosphoric acid (phosphate groups) with the ester bond. Nucleoside consists of pentose (deoxyribose or ribose) binding of a base (purine or pyrimidine derivatives) via glycoside bonds. Here is a comparison of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides and nucleosides on:Nucleoside bases Nukleotid1. Purine
Adenine Adenosine Adenosine monoposfat (AMP) = acid adonilat
Monoposfat guanine guanosine guanosine (GMP) = acid guanilat
Hypoxanthine monoposfat inosine inosine (IMP) = acid inosinat2. Pyrimidine
Monoposfat uracil uridine uridine (UMP) = acid uridilat
Monoposfat cytidine cytidine cytosine (CMP) = acid sitidilat
Monoposfat thymidine thymidine thymine (TMP) = acid thymidylateNucleosides exist in free form has an important function for health, for example, puromisin that function as antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis (produced by streptomyces). Arabinosil cytosine and adenine arabinosil as anti-viral and anti-fungal. Nucleotides are as free molecules or bind with other nucleotides to form nucleic acids. An example can be seen in the following table:DNA RNA Nitrogen BasesAdenine (A)Guanine (G)Thymine (T)Cytosine (C)Uracil (U) Adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)Guanosine 5'-monophosphate (GMP)-------------------Sitidin 5'-monophosphate (CMP)Uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP) deoxy adenosine 5'-monophosphate (DAMP)Deoxy guanosine 5'-monophosphate (DGMP)Deoxy thymidine 5'-monophosphate (dTMP)Sitidin deoxy 5'-monophosphate (dCMP)------------------Some nucleotides have important functions in the cell such as adenosine 5 'monophosphate (AMP), adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), which plays an important role in the transfer of a phosphate group to receive and deliver energy.Another form of cyclic nucleotides such as adenosine 3'-5'-cyclic monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP-) acts as a secondary messenger preformance adrenal hormones controlling metabolism. Another free nucleotides cyclic guanosine monophosphate is (cGMP = cyclic GMP) which allegedly serves as an enzyme inhibitor that is stimulated by cAMP. Also note that some trifosfonukleotida besides ATP plays a role in various reactionsin the cell. For example, CTP (Sitidin 5'-triphosphate) is involved in the biosynthesis of phospholipids, UTP role in the biosynthesis of various carbohydrate compounds. CTP and UTP are also used in the biosynthesis of RNA and DNA1) The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)This acid is a polymer consisting of deoxyribonucleotides molecules bound to one another to form a long polynucleotide chains. Long DNA molecules are formed by bonding between atoms C number 3 to number 5 on the C atom molecule-mediated deoxyribose phosphate groups. DNA containing a chemically karakteri / properties as follows:
a. Having a deoxyribose sugar group.
b. Nitrogenous bases guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) and adenine (A).
c. It has a chain of anti-parallel double helix
d. The content of nitrogen bases between the two chains together many specific and paired with one another. Guanine always pairs with cytosine (G-C), and adenine paired with thymine (A - T), so that the amount of guanine always equals the amount of cytosine. Likewise adenine and thymine.2) The structure of ribonucleic acid (RNA)Ribonucleic acid is a polymer composed of molecules ribonucleotides. Such DNA ribonucleic acid is formed by the bonding between atoms C No. 3 with the number 5 on the C atom of ribose molecule by means of a phosphate group. The formula is the same as the picture but the sugar is ribose 10.2 (C atom holding the number 2 OH) RNA have different specific properties of the chemical properties of DNA, ie in terms of:
a. Pentosanya sugar is ribose
b. RNA has ribonucleotide guanine (G), cytosine (C), adenine (A) and Uracil (U) instead of Thymine in DNA.
c. Fosfodiesternya strand is a single strand that can fold into a hairpin like DNA strands ganda.Beda the double helix shape of the molecule.
d. Percentage bass does not have the same content, not necessarily the same pair adenine with uracil and cytosine with guanine not be the same.There are three types of RNA that is tRNA (transfer RNA), mRNA (messenger RNA) and rRNA (ribosomal RNA). The three kinds of RNA have different functions, but all three together have an important role in protein synthesis. Here merupakn DNA to RNA structure comparison:In the cell, nucleic acids exist in three organelles, namely mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the nucleus of the cell. Here's the explanation:1. The cell nucleus (nucleus)This cell nucleus has three components, namely nukleoplasma, chromosomes, and nucleolus. In the nucleus, DNA is in the chromosomes. In the chromosomes are threads of DNA and protein synthesis plays a role in heredity factor. In addition to the DNA in the nucleus also contained RNA.2. MitochondriaNucleic acid contained in the mitochondria is deoksiribinukleat (DNA). Mitochondrial DNA contained in an organelle matrix is expressed as the mitochondrial genome. Mitochondrial DNA acts as a molecular marker for population genetic studies, tracking and tracing the origin of some degenerate diseases, aging, and cancer.3. ChloroplastsAccording to De Roberties, et al (1975:240) that between 3-5% of the dry weight of the chloroplast is RNA. DNA in the chloroplast genetic system known as non kromosal or cytoplasmic heredity. Additionally chloroplasts have DNA and RNA specific with the capacity in protein synthesis and the division process.
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